Dyslexia and related specific learning difficulties

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Dyslexia is most commonly described as a difficulty with processing written language. It is independent of intelligence and affects at least 10 per cent of the population, 4 per cent severely. It is often the case that dyslexic adults were not identified at school and therefore may not know they are dyslexic. Many of these undiagnosed dyslexic adults will be found in basic skills classes or needing basic skills support for academic or vocational courses or for work. Handwriting difficulties may be known as 'dysgraphia'. There are also difficulties such as 'dyspraxia' (poor motor co-ordination or 'clumsiness') and 'dyscalculia' (difficulties with calculation/maths), which are part of the dyslexic syndrome, but in some cases may function as a primary disability.

It is important to keep in mind that learners with sensory disabilities and learning difficulties may also have dyslexic difficulties. Others may experience similar difficulties to dyslexic people. Those who are partially hearing, for example, may have similar problems to those with auditory processing difficulties, as they attempt to rely on incomplete auditory information when reading and spelling.

Dyslexic learners are likely to have some or several of the following difficulties to differing degrees:

• discriminating or 'holding' sounds, which results in problems decoding when reading, confusing or omitting sounds when spelling, word confusions or mispronunciations
• recognising letters or familiar words when reading, or remembering the visual image of a word, the sequence of letters in spelling or numbers and signs in maths
• a poor short-term or 'orking' memory, or difficulty storing and retrieving linguistic information - this can affect their ability to remember language-based information such as instructions or copying from the board
• poor motor integration, resulting in difficulties controlling a pen when writing, omitting or repeating letters when spelling
• directional confusions
• problems with sequencing and organisation
• a poor sense of time
• getting lost easily
• difficulty achieving 'automaticity' or fluency of skills.

Impact on learning basic skills
The kinds, patterns and levels of difficulty will vary according to the type(s) of difficulty and the degree of impact within individual learning contexts. Dyslexia affects the acquisition of basic skills in many ways; indeed, it is often partly defined as a difficulty in acquiring basic skills. Dyslexic learners may have a history of persistent problems in learning to read, write and/or spell, and sometimes with maths.

Dyslexic learners may commonly have experience of failure to learn by traditional methods, and they will frequently have an experience of remedial classes that may have reinforced their failure to learn. Because of this, it is especially important to identify and understand their difficulties and use approaches that suit their learning style and give them an experience of success.

Dyslexic learners may have a range of difficulties that will affect their learning in different ways. For instance, those with auditory processing difficulties may be able to develop a good sight vocabulary for reading but will be unable to learn or use phonics effectively. They may be unable to work out new words through phonics. They often rely heavily on context as a compensatory strategy. Spelling will be especially difficult for learners with auditory processing problems, as they are unable to discriminate, segment and manipulate sounds efficiently. They are often unable to attempt a word unless they have a visual image of it.

Other dyslexic adults may primarily experience visual processing difficulties, which may lead them to experience visual disturbances. For some, these take the form of problems in perceiving print accurately. Print may appear to wobble, jump, blur, float out of sequence or drop off the page, causing acute visual stress and difficulties in forming stable images of words and letters. Most dyslexic adults will have difficulties with word recognition when reading; this means that they frequently do not recognise familiar, even very familiar, words. Because of this, they will rely on 'sounding out' words. These readers may find it especially hard to read irregular words, such as 'quay,' 'ache' or 'debt', which cannot be sounded out. They may have most difficulty at sentence and text level, because they put so much attention into working out the words that they lose comprehension and may not be able to make use of semantic and syntactic cues to help them read. They may also easily lose their place or skip a line without realising it.

A poor visual memory for words and letter sequences means that these learners often spell phonetically and are unable to tell when a word 'looks right'. They may also have directional confusions that affect their ability to tell the time on an analogue watch.

Visual processing difficulties often, but not always, go hand in hand with poor eye-hand co-ordination or general difficulties in integrating the motor, or movement, function.

Learners with motor integration problems may have difficulties following a line of print or keeping track of the letters in a multisyllabic word. They may also have problems pronouncing multisyllabic words. They will have difficulties, sometimes severe, with handwriting and organisation. The lack of automaticity in forming letters when handwriting can often result in great difficulties in expressing themselves fluently. They have to concentrate so much on forming the letters that they may forget what they intend to say, or find it so slow that they become discouraged and write very little.

Many dyslexic learners will have some combination of auditory, visual and/or motor processing difficulties. Learners working at Entry Level will often have problems with all three, which intensifies their struggle to learn to read and write. Difficulties in developing automaticity further increases problems, as spellings learned, for example, are lost when concentrating on writing.

Some learners may have other related difficulties, such as severe language problems ('deep' dyslexia/dysphasia) or more severe motor problems (dyspraxia) or other cognitive difficulties. The more complex the range of difficulties, the more difficult it will be for them to learn. Both teacher and learner must acknowledge this so that both understand why learning requires so much extra effort and why it is important to learn in a different way.

Screening and diagnostic assessment
Unlike most learners with other disabilities and learning difficulties, dyslexic adults may not have had their dyslexia identified. In addition, they have usually been labelled negatively at school, which often affects their self-esteem and confidence in their ability to learn. Consequently, the identification and understanding of their dyslexia is important for their learning.

Some common indicators of dyslexia include:

• a history of difficulties learning to read, even with extra help
• continuing problems with reading, e.g. decoding new words, misreading, missing out words or lines, finding the print blurs or 'dances'
• persistent difficulties with spelling, spellings that are far from the expected spelling, erratic spelling, being unable to remember spellings when trying to learn them in the same way and at the same pace as their peers
• miscopying, lots of crossings out, messy or laborious handwriting
• difficulties learning the alphabet, months of the year, times tables, other rote learning
• problems remembering or 'mishearing' instructions, messages, numbers, facts
• difficulties telling the time on a clock face, knowing how long things take
• problems planning and organising, putting things in sequence, missing out steps.

There are screening tests for adults that can help in identifying dyslexia, for example DAST and LADS.

Once a learner is identified as having several indicators of dyslexia, it is important to arrange a full diagnostic assessment. The purposes of this assessment, and what will come out of it, need to be made clear to the learner, who needs to be a full and willing participant in the process. A diagnostic assessment may be done by an educational or occupational psychologist or by a specialist trained teacher. However, it is very important that the person conducting the assessment is experienced in working with adults. It is recommended that all basic skills provision is delivered by a specialist trained teacher or with access to a specialist capable of diagnosing dyslexia and advising on teaching strategies.

Methods for diagnosing dyslexia in adults vary and the appropriateness and validity of many tests is contentious. It is most important to ensure that the diagnosis is constructive in helping the learners to make sense of past failure and understand both their difficulties and strengths more clearly. The diagnosis will then provide the basis for a successful learning experience and appropriate support in achieving stated goals.

The dyslexic learning style
Dyslexic people can often perform a range of complex tasks, such as solving complicated problems in electronics or design, yet cannot do the seemingly simple: learn to read and spell, order and organise writing, copy from the board, remember instructions, tell the time or find their way around. One way to look at this pattern of strengths and weaknesses is as a cognitive or learning 'style'. Many dyslexic people themselves experience their dyslexia as a difference - in how they think or learn.

Because of their language processing and short-term memory difficulties, dyslexic learners rely heavily on meaning and understanding, which means:

• a highly personalised approach to learning
• a need to have the learning process and conventions made explicit
• a need to understand how and why in order to learn.

Many, but not necessarily all, of the following learning styles 'fit' most dyslexic learners: They:

• think holistically ('all at once') rather than step by step
• need to see the whole 'picture' first before they can learn the steps or details
• are poor at remembering sequences but good at remembering patterns
• are good at seeing how lots of things are connected, how things work
• are poor at memorising but remember well when they really understand something
• learn by experience, not from being told
• are often 'concrete', tactile learners
• are not good at learning or applying rules or generalisations - they learn from the particular to the general
• need to make personal connections to remember things
• learn to read and write by having a personal interest in the subject matter
• learn better with the help of colour, humour, stories, images
• can, in maths, often get concepts but have trouble with calculation processes and the language of maths.

Technology and dyslexia
Computers can minimise spelling and handwriting problems for dyslexic learners, allowing them to express themselves more freely in writing and thus significantly improve the quality of their writing. They can also help enormously with planning and organising difficulties, reducing the frustration of writing.

For many learners, a keyboard makes a sufficient enough difference, as learners do not have to form the letters. Specialist keyboards and mice are also available, as are larger, coloured key-tops that can be stuck onto the keys of any keyboard. Make sure that background colour, colour and type of font, and spacing between letters are adjustable to suit individual needs. Arial, Comic Sans MS and Tahoma fonts are commonly preferred.

Others, however, will need voice-recognition (speech) and reading software. These are especially useful for learners with severe reading and/or writing difficulties and for learners frustrated from long experience of failure.

As well as giving the experience and pleasure of 'reading' to those who have never had it, reading software can be effectively combined with voice recognition technology, enabling a technological version of scribing/language experience which gives the learner more autonomy. Learners need to 'train' the software, but this can be done through introducing their own words and reading their own writing. Voice- recognition technology can also help in developing writing skills, such as written expression, sentence structure, punctuation and proof-reading. Learners may need to try to see whether they need discrete or continuous speech software.

Other useful hardware includes spell checkers, dictionaries and thesauruses, many of which have a speech facility.

Cassette recorders can be a great help with comprehension for those with poor word recognition (see guidance on Comprehension strategies in reading section). They can also be used to record important information, to record ideas when planning writing, or as a learning resource (e.g. for learning tables).

A 'Reading pen' is especially useful for those with auditory processing problems. It scans and pronounces individual words and sentences and defines words.

There is software available that adds speech output and has word-prediction and spell-check facilities. Word prediction helps develop language, as it is based on units of meaning. Other software can be used for mind mapping, drafting and making notes. The non-linear nature of mind maps is particularly helpful to those with a holistic, non-sequential learning style.

Approaches to consider when working with dyslexic learners

• avoid repeating approaches that have not worked in the past. Use approaches that match learners' learning style. Do not keep trying phonics or 'look and say' if these methods have previosly failed.
• teach basic skills in a context. Use learners' own written work and materials from a vocational area the learner is studying or working in, or subject content that is of particular interest to the learner (e.g. car repair, recipes, stories, environment or family history).
• help learners understand their learning styles, their strengths and weaknesses, and how their dyslexia affects their learning.
• find teaching methods, approaches and materials that suit their learning styles, such as using highlighters and scissors and paste to manipulate written materials.
• encourage learners to find their own strategies so that they become independent in their learning. For example, talk to learners about how they get around certain difficulties, or offer them memorising techniques. Look at mnemonics (a visual approach to learning), auditory strategies and learning by doing.
• recognise that processing difficulties will not be overcome by practice, so avoid persisting with ineffective approaches such as trying to get the learner to 'hear' the sounds.
• when addressing weaknesses, such as poor comprehension in someone with poor (visual) word recognition, 'scaffold' the skill to be learned and look for compensating strategies such as the use of tapes. See guidance on Comprehension strategies and Scaffolding approach.
• see technology not only as a tool for supporting the development of basic skills, but also as a potential 'way in' to developing the skill, or an alternative means of access. Some people may never master the skills for spelling, and it is important that they should have access to literacy that is independent of spelling.
• encourage learners to make visual representations of information, such as mind maps - they will then be able to recall this more easily.
• when preparing handouts, pay attention to how easy they are to read and consider using more accessible, sans serif, fonts.
• use colour and imagery to highlight key points or important details.
• offer a range of lined coloured paper for learners to write on (this may have to be photocopied or specially ordered). If learners have a colour that is best for them, ensure all handouts are printed on it for them.
• Emphasise over-learning to help get learning into long-term memory.
• teach spelling through an individualised spelling programme
• Use multisensory approaches to develop strengths and support weaknesses.